Freedom of Speech and Censorship

From The SAGE Encyclopedia of Communication Research Methods: "Freedom of expression research focuses on the rights of communicators to send and receive messages and actions that inhibit those rights. Free expression scholarship often focuses on freedom from government constraints on communication, as the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution bars Congress (later interpreted to refer to the government, generally) from abridging free expression. Researchers also analyze constraints on expression imposed by private actors, such as corporations or empowered groups in society. Constraints that are examined include censorship of messages, penalties imposed after messages are communicated, and policies or actions that cause a chilling effect because communicators censor themselves rather than risk adverse consequences."

From the Encyclopedia of Journalism: "The culture of journalism pivots on struggles over government control of information and expression. Journalism's identity relies on a collective memory about its role in continually expanding the area of free expression."

" Everyone has the following fundamental freedoms: freedom of thought, belief, opinion and expression, including freedom of the press and other media of communication."

By Kent Roach and and David Schneiderman. From Supreme Court Law Review (2013), 61 S.C.L.R. (2d)

"[C]ollege students have rights on campus, but colleges can also restrict those rights. Under the law, students at public colleges and universities have a right to freedom of speech. However, these protections do not apply at private colleges, since they are not government entities. Our guide to free speech walks through First Amendment protections, the definition of free speech, and limits to free speech rights. We also look at free speech on college campuses, including the right to protest and the differences between public and private colleges."

"In publication for over 100 years, the Constitution Annotated is a comprehensive, government-sanctioned record of the interpretations of the Constitution. Through 2 U.S.C. § 168, Congress has ordered the Librarian of Congress to compile and periodically update the Constitution Annotated to provide essential information to Congress and the public at large."

"Article 19
1. Everyone shall have the right to hold opinions without interference.
2. Everyone shall have the right to freedom of expression; this right shall include freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of his choice.
3. The exercise of the rights provided for in paragraph 2 of this article carries with it special duties and responsibilities. It may therefore be subject to certain restrictions, but these shall only be such as are provided by law and are necessary:
(a) For respect of the rights or reputations of others;
(b) For the protection of national security or of public order (ordre public), or of public health or morals."